CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
Each human language is a complex of knowledge and abilities enabling speakers of the language to communicate with each other, to express ideas, hypotheses, emotions, desires, and all the other things that need expressing. Linguistics is the study of these knowledge systems in all their aspects: how is such a knowledge system structured, how is it acquired, how is it used in the production and comprehension of messages, how does it change over time? Linguists consequently are concerned with a number of particular questions about the nature of language. What properties do all human languages have in common? How do languages differ, and to what extent are the differences systematic, i.e. can we find patterns in the differences? How do children acquire such complete knowledge of a language in such a short time? What are the ways in which languages can change over time, and are there limitations to how languages change? What is the nature of the cognitive processes that come into play when we produce and understand language?
Because language is such a central feature of being a human, Linguistics has intellectual connections and overlaps with many other disciplines in the humanities, the social sciences, and the natural sciences. Some of the closest connections are with Philosophy, Literature, Language Pedagogy, Psychology, Sociology, Physics (acoustics), Biology (anatomy, neuroscience), Computer Science, Computer Engineering, Health Sciences (Aphasia, Speech Therapy).
B. Problems Statement
b.
What is the sub-fields of linguistics?
c.
What is hyphenated fields of linguistics?
d.
Why study linguistics?
C.
Purpose
Of some problem formulation above objectives are:
a.
Knowing the
definition of linguistic.
b.
Knowing the sub-fields of
linguistics.
c.
Knowing hyphenated fields of
linguistics.
d.
Knowing why we study
linguistics.
Have
you ever wondered why we say "feet" rather than "foots"? Or
what we do with our mouths to make a b sound different from a p? Or why we
rarely say what we actually mean? It's questions like these that intrigue the
linguist!
Many
people think that a linguist is someone who speaks many languages and works as
a language teacher or as an interpreter at the United Nations. In fact, these
people are more accurately called "Polyglots". While many linguists
are polyglots, the focus of linguistics is about the structure, use and
psychology of language in general.
Linguistics
is the scientific study of Language. Linguists (people who are
specialists in Linguistics) do work on specific languages, but their primary
goal is to understand the nature of Language in general: …what
distinguishes human language from other animal communication systems? …what
features are common to all human languages? …how are the modes of linguistic
communication (speech, writing, sign language of the deaf) related to each
other? …how is Language related to other types of human behavior? …etc.
The
main goal of the study of Linguistics in an academic setting, like all other
intellectual disciplines, is to increase our knowledge and understanding of the
world. However, since Language is universal and fundamental to all human
interactions, the knowledge attained in Linguistics has many practical
applications. Linguists, with some training in other appropriate
disciplines, would thus be prepared to seek answers to questions such as the
following: …how can a previously unstudied language be analyzed and written?
…how can foreign languages best be taught and learned? …how can speech be synthesized
on a computer or (far more difficult) how can a computer be programmed to
understand human speech? …how can the language problems of people with speech
abnormalities be analyzed and rectified? …how are linguistic issues in legal
matters to be handled? …etc.
B.
The Sub-Fields of Linguistics
Language
is a phenomenon with many layers, from the sounds that come out of people’s
mouths to the meanings that those sounds express. The field of
Linguistics is composed of sub-fields, and most professional linguists become
specialists in one or more of those sub-fields. The major sub-fields are
the following:
1.
Phonetics:
This is the study of speech sounds themselves. Phoneticians study
both the production of speech sounds by the human speech organs (articulatory
phonetics) and the properties of the sounds themselves (acoustic
phonetics). Phoneticians are concerned with such questions as the
following: …what are the sounds, from among all those that humans could make,
that actually exist in the world’s languages? …what specially defines different
“accents”? …can speakers be identified by “voiceprints”? ...what are the
properties of sounds that would go into computerized speech synthesis?
2.
Phonology:
This is the study of the organization of language sounds. Phonologists
are concerned with questions such as the following: …what sounds contrast
in one language but not another (answers to such questions explain why Spanish
speakers have trouble with the difference between English sh and ch,
or why English speakers have trouble with the different “u” sounds in French
words like rue ‘street’ and roue ‘wheel’.)? … what sounds of a language can or
cannot occur one after the other (for example, why can words begin in st-
in English but not in Spanish)? ...how do poets or writers or song lyrics
intuitively know how to match the rhythm of speech to the abstract rhythmic
pattern of a poetic or musical meter?
3.
Morphology:
This is the study of the make-up of words. Morphologists study
such questions as the following: …to what extent are ways of forming words
“productive” or not (why do we say arrival and amusement but not
*arrivement and *amusal)? …what determines when words change form
(why does English have to add –er to adjectives when making comparisons
but Hebrew does not add any equivalent)? …how can we get a computer to
recognize the “root” of a word separated from its “affixes” (e.g. how could a
computer recognize walk, walks, walking, and walked
as the “same” word)?
4.
Syntax:
This is the study of how phrases and sentences larger than the word are
constructed. Syntacticians address such questions as the
following: …how can the number of sentences we could utter be infinite in
number even though the number of words in any language is finite? …what is it
that makes a sentence like visiting relatives can be boring ambiguous?
…why would English speakers judge a sentence like colorless green ideas
sleep furiously to be “grammatical” even though it is nonsensical? …how can
languages express the same thoughts even though they construct their sentences
in different ways (e.g. why does English I saw them there mean the same
thing as French je les y ai vus even though the order of elements in
French is I them there have seen)? …how can a computer be programmed to
analyze the structure of sentences (note that answers to this question would be
crucial for machine translation because of differences in sentence formation
across languages)?
5.
Semantics:
This is the study of meaning. Semanticists answer such questions
as the following: …how do we know what words mean (how do we know where red
stops and orange starts)? what is the basis of metaphors (why is my
car is a lemon a “good” metaphor but my car is a cabbage is not)?
…what makes sentences like I’m looking for a tall student or the
student I am looking for must be tall have more than one meaning? …in a
sentence like I regret that he lied, how do we know that, in fact, he
did lie? …How many meanings can be found in a sentence like three students
read three books and why do just those meanings exist?
C. Hyphenated
Fields of Linguistics
In
addition to these basic sub-fields there are a number of “hyphenated” fields of
Linguistics, which use the “tools” of the basic fields. Some of these
“hyphenated” fields are the following:
1.
Historical linguistics:
This is the study of how languages change over time, addressing such questions
as why modern English is different form Old English and Middle English or what
it means to say that English and German are “more closely related” to each
other than English and French.
2.
Sociolinguistics:
This is the study of how Language is used in society, addressing such questions
as what makes some dialects more “prestigious” than others, where slang comes
from and why it arises, or what happens when two languages come together in
“bilingual” communities.
3.
Psycholinguistics:
This is the study of how language is processed in the mind, addressing such
questions as how we can hear a string of language noises and make sense of them,
how children can learn to speak and understand the language of their
environment as quickly and effortlessly as they do, or how people with
pathological language problems differ from people who have “normal” language.
4.
Neurolinguistics:
This is the study of the actual encoding of language in the brain, addressing
such questions as what parts of the brain different aspects of language are
stored in, how language is actually stored, what goes on physically in the
brain when language is processed, or how the brain compensates when certain
areas are damaged.
5.
Computational
linguistics:
Learning and understanding a language involves computing the properties of
language that are described in phonology, syntax, and semantics from what is
heard. The challenge of describing how this is possible connects
linguistics with computational issues at a very fundamental level. How
could syntactic structures be computed from spoken language, how are semantic
relations recognized, and how could these computational skills be
acquired? Computational linguists attempt to answer these questions.
D. Why
Study Lingustic?
The
main purpose of the study of Linguistics in an academic environment is the
advancement of knowledge. However, because of the centrality of language in
human interaction and behavior, the knowledge gained through the study of
linguistics has many practical consequences and uses. Graduates of
undergraduate and graduate programs in Linguistics apply their training in many
diverse areas, including language pedagogy, speech pathology, speech synthesis,
natural language interfaces, search engines, machine translation, forensics,
naming, and of course all forms of writing, editing, and publishing. Perhaps
the most widely appreciated application was contributed by UCSC Linguistics
alumnus Marc Okrand, who invented the Klingon language for Star Trek.
CHAPTER III
CLOSING
A. Conclusion
Linguistics is the
scientific study of Language. Linguists
(people who are specialists in Linguistics) do work on specific languages, but
their primary goal is to understand the nature of Language in general:
…what distinguishes human language from other animal communication systems?
…what features are common to all human languages? …how are the modes of
linguistic communication (speech, writing, sign language of the deaf) related
to each other? …how is Language related to other types of human behavior? …etc.
The
main goal of the study of Linguistics in an academic setting, like all other
intellectual disciplines, is to increase our knowledge and understanding of the
world. However, since Language is universal and fundamental to all human
interactions, the knowledge attained in Linguistics has many practical applications.
